Abstract
It has been estimated that by the year 2000, the national out-of-wedlock birthrate will be nearly 40 percent. Some mental health professionals are concerned about the increase in abuse and neglected children which likely will accompany this trend. A large percentage of these children will possibly consist of minorities and offspring of interracial partnerships. Should families be able to adopt children from racially different backgrounds? Does transracial adoptions represent a form of racial and cultural genocide? What can mental health professionals do to help interracial families cope? Is it better for children to be placed in foster care rather than in a stable enviornment of racially different parents? This presentation provides an overview of transracial adoptions and a review of relevant research.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Acculturation is a bi-directional process in which the ethnic minority person is influenced by the majority culture, but also retains his or her ethnic culture and identity; adaption process in which the ethnic person embraces different modes of acculturation.
Assimilation occurs when a person relinquishes ethnicity and assume majority identity.
Marginalization is a lack of identification with both the majority & minority ethnic group.
Multicultural implies a sense of simultaneous loyalty to and the embracing of more than one culture (Williams, 1992)
Racial/Ethnic Identity is defined as a sense of group or collective identity based upon one's perception of a sharing common heritage with a particular racial group.
Transracial adoption is the joining of racially different parents and
children together in adoptive families.
The Multiethnic Placement Act (MEPA)--signed into law by President Clinton in 1994. Designed to:
* prevent discrimination in the placement of children on the basis of race, color, or national orgin.
* facilitate the recruitment of foster & adoptive parents.
* increase number of children who are adopted..
Questions to Consider?
1. Is it possible for a family from one racial background to help a
child from a different racial background develop positive racial
identity.
2. How are transracial adoptees and their family perceived?
3. Is it cultural genocide for a child to be raised by someone racially
different?
4. Are transracial adoptees marginal to both cultures?
5. What type of boundaries should be set for the child involved in transracial
adoptions.
6. What are the overall societal views on transracial adoptions?
7. Which ethnic group should adopt when the child is biracial?
8. Are we realistically looking out for the best interest of the
child?
9. Should the effort to instill a sense of ethnic identity & awareness
of cultural heritage be viewed as an option & not
a necessity? Is there an acceptable alternative?
10. Does the opposition of transracial adoptions represent a form of reverse racism?
Major Concerns
The willingness or inability of Caucasian parents to instill a strong sense of ethnic knowledge of cultural heritage in their minority children.
Some argued Caucasian parents are expected to conform to a tightly set
of strained set of criteria & considerable latitude is given to minority
parents.
Children have a right to a sense of ethnic identity & cultural
heritage.
The North american Council on Adopted Children postulate that "transracial adopters must realize that the ethnic & cultural heritage of the child is an essential right therefore the families must be willing to seek out services and personal contacts in the community that will support the child
Opponents say transracial adoptees will be alienated both from their racially defined community & from the Caucasian community in which they grow up, with traumatic & emotional consequences.
"What of the American-Indian or African-American child who is defined as an alien in the white community and a traitor in the respective minority community?
There's also the threat to mental health is supported by a theory that minority communities, in particular the African-American community have responded to endemic societal racism by developing "survival strategies" that involve practicing an amoral seduction of dominant society.
Minority children will not learn the needed strategies, only living on the confines of their home environment, thus unable to survive.
Brief History of Transracial Adoptions (TRA)
TRA introduced shortly after WWII-immigrant children from Korea and Japan were brought to US.
First American-Indian TRA operated form 1958-1968 when approximatley
400 American Indian children placed for adoption. Joint venture between
Bureau of Indian Affairs & the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA)
placed American Indian Children with white families.
1970's produced an increase of TRA in Vietnamese children (Vietnam War).
During 1969, 23 percent of all African-American children were placed in white homes--1971 figure increased to 35 percent.
By 1970 TRA had occurred in every state except Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina.
Between 1967 & 1972 approximately 10,000 black children had been placed with white families.
As a result the National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) composed of 5000 members in 1972 passed this resolution:
Black children belong physically and psychologically and culturally in black families where they receive total sense of themselves and develop a sound projection for their future. Only a black family can transmit the emotional and sensitive subtleties of perceptions and reactions essential for a black child's survival in a racist society. Human being are products of their environment and develop their sense of values, attitudes and self-concept within their own family structures. Black children in white homes are cut off from the healthy development of themselves as black people. (NationalAssociation of Black Social Workers, 1972, p. 2-3).
Civil Rights Movement- Dr. Martin Luther King directly influenced this move (all races' common humanity & integration rather than separation).
Minority Children
Interracial adoptions account for approximately 8 percent of adoptions (consist mostly of African-American children and Caucasian parents).
There are more African-American children waiting in foster care than prescreened African-American families.
According to Project 21 News report 40 percent of the children awaiting
adoption are black and many either are resigned to be placed in foster
homes or be adopted by non-black couples.
Approximately 24 percent of children in foster care have been in 3-4
different homes.
Black children may wait typically 2-3 years longer than white children
for adoptive homes.
Big Question--WHY?
* high fees charged by private adoptions?
* failure to recruit minority families for adoption?
* minority families' suspicion of adoption agencies, feelings of intimidation
caused by home-study screening process?
* fear of not being approved?
* stringent selection criteria?
* failing to consider demographic & economic positions of
minority families?
Racial Identity
Racial Identity composed of two processes:
a. racial conception- concerned with when & how the child learns to make racial distinctions at a conceptual level.
b. racial evaluation-deals with when & how the child evaluates his or her membership in a racial group.
Racial identity (RI) is considered one of the most important issues
in counseling and cross-cultural psychology because:
a. It is related to numerous indicators of mental health in ethnic minorities.
b. RI can be an important variable in the establishment of the counseling relationship.
c. RI dispels the cultural conformity myth in that all individuals from a particular minority are the same, with same attitudes and preferences.
d. RI helps shape individuals' attitudes about themselves, attitudes about other individuals in their racial/ethnic group, and attitudes about individuals from the majority (Poston, 1990).
Stages of Racial Identity Development
Stage I. Conformity--Minorities highly value the lifestyles, value system, cultural and physical characteristics most like the dominant culture, while those like their own are negatively perceived.
a) Attitudes & beliefs toward self--distinguished ethnic characteristics reflecting themselves are a source of shame.
b) Attitudes & beliefs towards members of the same minority group--individuals have internalized cultural beliefs & attitudes held by dominant culture.
c) Atitudes & beliefs held toward members of different minorities-- minority groups most similar to white cultural groups viewed more favorable while those less similar viewed more negatively.
d) Attitudes & beliefs toward the dominant group--the cultural
standards of the dominant group are admired and are viewed as superior.
Stage II. Dissonance--gradual process where the individual encounters
& experiences information inconsistent with culturally held beliefs,
values, & attitudes regarding their racial heritage.
a) Attitudes & beliefs toward self--individual realizes that racism does exists and that not all aspects of the minority or majority culture are good or bad. Person may have some positive attributes about the minority culture for the first time. Person also has a mixed feelings of pride & shame.
b) Attitudes & beliefs towards members of the same minority
group--dominant views of the minority stregnths & weaknesses are questioned.
Some aspects of minority culture begin to have appeal.
c) Atitudes & beliefs held toward members of different minorities--the stereotypes associated with other minority groups are questioned. There is a growing sense of comradeship with other oppressed people.
d) Attitudes & beliefs toward the dominant group--person experiences
a growing awareness that not all cultural values of the dominant
group are beneficial. An increased suspicion & distrust of certain
members of the dominant group develops.
Stage III. Resistance & Immersion---person rejects the values
& beliefs of the dominant group & completely endorses minority
held views. Experiences intense feelings of guilt, anger, & shame.
a) Attitudes & beliefs toward self--minority individual explores & discovers his/her own culture. Cultureal & racial characteristics that previously elicited feelings of shame becomes symbols of pride. The question is "Why should I feel ashamed of who I am and what I look like?"
b) Attitudes & beliefs towards members of the same minority group--individual experiences strong sense of identification and committment with his/her minority group. Group member are admired & respected. Cultural values of the minority group are unquestionably accepted.
c) Atitudes & beliefs held toward members of different minorities-- conflict between feelings of empathy for other minority group experiences & feelings of culturocentrism. Partnerships with other minority groups are based upon convenient factors & are formed for political reasons. No attempt is made to understand cultural values of other minority groups.
d) Attitudes & beliefs toward the dominant group--person totally
rejects the dominant culture developing a strong sense of distrust
& dislike. Becomes completely emerged within his/her own culture.
Stage IV. Introspection-- individual begins to discover that the level
of anger directed toward the dominant group is psychologically draining
& does not permit one to understand themselves or their own racial
group. Experiences feelings of discontent & discomfort with group views
that are rigid.
a) Attitudes & beliefs toward self--individual begins to spend more time & energy trying to sort out aspects of self-identity & begins to become more independent.
b) Attitudes & beliefs towards members of the same minority group--individual may see his/her own group taking positions that may seem quite extreme. An increasing resentment over how one's group may attempt to pressure the individual into making decisions that may be inconsistent with the person's values & beliefs.
c) Atitudes & beliefs held toward members of different minorities-- individual makes an attempt to reach out to other minority groups & find out what oppression did they experience.
d) Attitudes & beliefs toward the dominant group--individual
experiences conflict between attitudes of complete trust for the dominant
culture & attitudes of selective trust & distrust according
to the dominant individual's demonstrated behaviors/attitudes. There
is a recognition that there are many elements of the dominant that
are highly functional & desirable, but there is confusion regarding
how to incorporate the elements.
Stage V. Integrative Awareness---individuals have developed a
strong sense of security. They appreciate unique aspects of their culture
& the dominant culture. Previous conflicts experienced at earlier
stages become resolved.
a) Attitudes & beliefs toward self--minority individual develops a strong sense of self-worth & confidence; begins to perceive themselves as being autonomous and unique.
b) Attitudes & beliefs towards members of the same minority group--individual experiences strong sense of pride without having to completely accept group values. Strong feelings of empathy with the group experiences coincide with the awareness of individuality among group members.
c) Atitudes & beliefs held toward members of different minorities--there is a reaching out toward different minority groups in order to gain an understanding of their cultural heritage/values & ways of life. Support for all oppressed people are recognized.
d) Attitudes & beliefs toward the dominant group--individual experiences selective trust from members of the dominant group who seek to eliminate oppressive activities of the group. Emphasis placed upon the fact that white people are also victims in need of help.
From Sue, D.W. & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (2nd edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Relationship Between Ethnic Identity & Acculturation
Strong sense of ethnic identity & high level of acculturation--
individuals are considered bicultural. They have a strong sense of
belonging to their particular ethnic group while also possessing a high
degree of identification with the macroculture. Bicultural individuals
can physically & psychologically move in a comfortable manner betweeen
their ethnic culture & the macroculture.
Weak Sense of ethnic Identity & High Level of Acculturation--
individuals have limited sense of belonging to their ethnic group.
They identify predominantly with the macroculture & are marginal to
their ethnic group culture. Individuals may internalize idea that
the key or significant factor to social, educational, or economic advancement
in the United States is predicated on the complete rejection of an ethnic
minority worldview & total conformity to the macroculture.
Strong Sense of Ethnic Identity & Low Level of Acculturation--
individuals have little identification with or are marginal to the
macroculture & posses strong identification with their ethnic group
(recent immigrants) but have limited social or economic opportunities due
to barriers such as racism. Cultural validation may be found within their
ethnic group.
Weak Sense of Ethnic Identity & Low Level of Acculturation-- individuals
are marginal to both the macroculture & their ethnic group. They have
limited sense of belonging to any group & will be highly dysfunctional.
Age, gender, experience with racism, legnth of stay in US, & socioeconomic
factors are factors influencing ethnic identity & level of acculturation.
From C. C. Lee (1996). Cultural dynamics: Their importance in culturally responsive counseling. In C. C. Lee (2nd ed.), Multicultural Issues in Counseling: New Approaches to Diversity (pp. 15-29), Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
PARENT'S DEFINITION
Some transracial adoptive parents may take a color blind attitude to racial differences between the child & family, which deemphasizes the role of racials identity.
Brandell (1989) has identified three methods utilized by parents of biracial children when confronting issues of race: (adaptable to transracial adoptees).
(1) deny that race is important, the child is human above all else;
(2) promote only one parent's racial identity; one parent suffers alienation
from the rest of that parent's family. In those instances where a biracial
child has rejected one parent figure for "identification", the child may
experience massive feelings of guilt and disloyalty. This may foster feelings
of self-hatred, defensiveness, insecurity and self-pity. If there is no
resolution and integration, there is maladjustment and neurosis.
Thus the need to assure the development of a healthy identity becomes critical
(Buttery, 1987).
(3) attempt to acknowledge the child's ethnic heritage.
Positive parental feelings about racial identification are critical
to sound adjustment of TRA children. Just because two individuals adopts
transracially does not mean that they have resolved their own emotions
and subtle racial issues.
Extended Family & Friends
Possibly could be a source of problems for Transracial adoptee. Grandparents and other relatives may not want to accept them.
Research
Simon & Alstein (1987) completed 15 year longitudinal study of approximately 200 transracial adoptive families. Following conclusions were noted:
a. transracial adoptions caused no special problems.
b. children placed on this basis are well adjusted.
c. researchers preferred same-race placement & recommend that
agencies strive initially to locate permanent inracial placement for children.
Silverman (1993) summarized that about 75 percent of transracially adopted
preadolescent and younger children adjusted well in their adopted homes.
McRoy (1982 & 1984) investigated potential self-esteem & identity problems in a sample of transracial adoptees.
They compared 30 white families who had adopted black children to a group of 30 Black families who had adopted black children. Children were at least 10 years old & had been in home for minimum of a year.
87 percent of white families lived in predominantly white areas, their black adopted children attended predominantly white schools.
75 percent of black families lived in predominantly black neighboorhoods & attended predominantly black schools.
No siginificant differences were found regarding self-esteem scores. Results on identity more complex.
Parents who viewed black adopted child as mixed tended to have black
child having same view. Some of black children who had little contact with
blacks tended to devalue their black heritage.
Simon (1993) summarized results of interviews with transracial adults first studied in 1972. Results concluded:
* transracial adoptees were aware of & comfortable with their racial
identity.
* adult black transracial adoptees laughed at notion that only blacks can raise black children & were pleased at the possible cultural diversity of African- Americans.
Simon furthermore critized the NABSW for their militant view/opposition to transracial adoption of black children.
Counselors who find themselves working with potential parents considering transracial adoptions should:
1) help them examine their beliefs & attitudes about race & ethnicity.
2) examine their lifestyle--what type of neighboorhood do you live in?
How will your family accept this child? Friends?
3) not tolerate any racial or ethnically biased remarks.
4) become more invested in parenting.
5) Celebrate diversity--Celebrate all cultures.
6) not shy away from talking about race & culture.
7) expose the child to individuals from his/her ethnic group.
8) consider adopting another child.
Other Considerations:
It is preferable that prospective Caucasian parents live in a mixed or minority neighboorhood & associate with minorities.
They should teach their children stories of minority heroes in history & about the reality of racism.
1) parents acknowledge and discuss their racial heritage with their children.
2) children have the opportunity to develop relationships with racially diverse peers attending a racially diversified school and living in an integrated neighboorhood.
3) parents are flexible in promoting the development of a positive racial identity.
4) family identifies itself as an interracial unit and have social interactions
in racially integrated social institutions andorganizations.
Kerwin-Ponterotto Model of Biracial Identity
(Adaptable to Transracial adoptees)
BI is dependent upon a variety of personal, societal, and environmental factors.
STAGE I-Preschool. up to 5 yrs; Children recognize differences between black and white parents in hair texture and skin color.
STAGE II-Entry to School. Children enter school with a well defined sense of the self. Big Question for multiracial children Who are you? Children begin to use labels or descriptive terms to define themselves and their families. The degree they use labels is dependent upon whether or not parents discuss labels with them.
STAGE III-Preadolescence. During this period there is an increasing recognition of one's own and others' group membership being related to factors such as language, culture, physical appearance, and skin color.
STAGE IV-Adolescence. Often known as the most difficult stage. There's pressure to identify with one particular racial group. Dating during this time may be difficult.
STAGE V-College/Young Adulthood. The biracial individual may continue to immerise in one culture while rejecting the other. With the development of a more secure personal identity usually accompanying this stage, rejection of others expectations and acceptance one's biracial & bicultural heritage is increasingly likely to occur. A successful experience through this stage mean that there will be a growing recognition of the advantages and disadvantages associated with having a biracial heritage.
STAGE VI-Adulthood. The individual finds that he/she is able to
function effectively in different situations and understand different communities.
Biracial identity is a continual life long process.
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REFERENCES
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Cross, W. E., Jr. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black Liberation. Black World, 20, 13-27.
Gibbs, J. T. (1987). Identity and marginality: Issues in the treatment of biracial adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 265-278.
Griffith, E. H. & Duby, J. L. (1991). Recent Developments in the Transracial Adoption Debate. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 19, 339-350.
Hatcher, C. L. (1987). "It's only half of me," The interracial child: The need for balance. Education Resource Information Center (ERIC), 197-208.
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National Association of Black Social Workers, (1972). Position Statement of Trans-racial Adoptions. New York: National Association of Black Social Workers.
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